An Introduction To Political Cleavage Concepts Politics Essay

An Introduction To Political Cleavage Concepts Politics Essay The concept of a political cleavage is contested in important ways (Daalder 1966, Eckstein 1966, Dogan 1967, Zuckerman 1982, Bartolini Mair 1990, Neto Cox 1997), and whether cleavages exist in post-communist Eastern Europe might depend substantially on how the term is defined. Some authors who find that cleavages are weak or absent in the region use a rigorous definition of the term (Lawson 1999). It is argued here, however, that even when the definitional barrier is raised to a high level, political cleavages are in all likelihood present in the region(Whitefield 2002). Many studies have found a link between pre-communist historical legacies and institutional choice. For example Kitschelt argues that pre-communist experiences had an influence on the communist regime which ultimately has an impact on party cleavages. Indeed, he argues that pre-communist experiences can be distinguished rather easily, but the length of the political liberalisation phase in the 1980s and the significance of having had two or three rounds of free elections since 1990 may be disputable. While I do not believe that isolating these pre communist legacies is necessarily, I do believe that pre-communist legacies must be included in any analysis of post-communist social cleavages. I suggest that history is very important for the cases of Romania and Hungary. Furthermore, if we go back to Dalton, he insists that religious cleavage has followed the same pattern of decline as for the class cleavage. As he sees, one possible exception to the rule of declining social cleavages involves race and ethnicity. Nevertheless, even today, social, religious and ethic identities of citizens still have explanatory power in examination of voting behavior (Nieuwbeerta, 1998; Knutsen Scarbrough, 1995). The question on the relation between a countries social cleavage structure and political outcomes has become of extra relevance in Eastern European nations after the collapse of totalitarian regimes. Since the velvet revolutions in 1989 the political party structure in these nations had to be build almost from scratch, the question rises, according to Nieuwbeerta(1998), whether these new political systems developed in a way similar to how it is organized in Western nations. Therefore, to what extent are party systems in Eastern European nations based on major socio-economic cleavages in these nations? At first it is seems like that most newly founded parties in Eastern Europe represent such cleavages. For example in Romania and Hungary Social-Democratic and Liberal parties were created, as well as religious and nationalist parties. The concept of a political cleavage, however, is not universally regarded as useful by political observers of the post-communist world (White et al. 1997, Elster et al. 1998). Indeed, in a highly influential and controversial account published soon after the collapse of communist power, Fukuyama (1992) interpreted the event as an indicator of the end of ideological division across all modern societies, East European ones included. The collapse of communism could be seen as demonstrating either broad support for liberalism or, if we want to put the argument negatively, the absence of any alternative method of organizing modern society. From this perspective, although transition in the region would certainly have its winners and losers, the end of ideological competition meant that the political cleavages that had divided populations across industrial societies, most famously characterized by Lipset Rokkan (1967), were anachronistic. Differences among politicians and choices among vot ers would in this context be based on who could best do the job of delivering on liberal, market, and democratic policies(Whitefield 2002). But whether cleavages were envisaged or not, scholarly interest in the cleavage structures (or lack thereof) in post-communist states was often strongly grounded in pessimistic assessments of their putative effects on party competition and on the stability of these new democracies (Cirtautas 1994, Comisso 1997, Elster et al. 1998). According to these ideas, there are at least two important questions that should be answered. First, although the general shape of the cleavage structures of post-communism is better understood, the mechanisms for their formation are unclear or disputed. Most explanations of cleavages in more established democracies emphasize the importance of prior social organization in providing sources of interest and political allegiance among the public that allow coordination of voters and parties in structured and relatively stable ways (Sartori 1969, Przeworski 1985). Such prior social organization, however, was largely absent across Eastern Europe. Second, in order to speak with full confidence about the existence of cleavages, it is necessary to see stability and persistence in social and ideological divisions, but naturally these conditions are only weakly established empirically. There are also differing theoretical expectations about the stability of the social and ideological divisions in politics. Considerable volatility is evident in support for particular parties, and political parties themselves have often been short-lived, offering voters little opportunity to reward or punish them. But is this volatility of supply and demand for parties a sign of instability in the cleavage structure? For many countries, there is limited evidence available to test these possibilities because follow-up studies that might allow over-time comparisons have not yet taken place; however, it should be noted that where such evidence is available, it points to more stability than change in the structure of underlying social and ideological di visions, which strengthens claims about the existence of cleavages in the region and especially in Romania and Hungary. 2. The cleavage hypothesis If we want to understand the idea and the formation of cleavages, we should first find appropriate explanation. Party nationalisation might be explained as a consequence of the territorial structure of social or socio-economic divides (Lipset Rokkan, 1967). Caramani (2004, p. 15) addresses the centre-periphery and the urban-rural cleavage as territorial divides, connected to low levels of nationalisation. In contrast, functional cleavages, such as the economic cleavage in Western Europe, do not have a territorial character, so that parties organising along such cleavages are highly nationalised (cf. Caramani, 2004; Cox, 1999, p. 159). The explanation of party system structures by cleavages has been criticised though, because cleavages do not convert into parties as a matter of course, but this is produced by the political system itself (Zielinski, 2002, p. 187). Looking at Central and Eastern Europe, only a few scholars are looking for similarities of political divisions with social cleavages in Western democracies (Kitschelt et al., 1999). The view overwhelms that cleavages, especially if they are narrowly defined, are of limited relevance in the region (Elster et al., 1998, pp. 247-270). However, one social divide appears to be an exception to the rule: The ethnic divide is salient in Central and Eastern Europe (Evans Need, 2002) and helps many parties to mobilise their voters (Elster et al., 1998, p. 252). Ethnic minorities exist in almost all countries, and they vote in large numbers for their own parties. Furthermore, issues related to ethnicity help as well nationalist parties of the titular nation to mobilise their voters. The investigation of ethnic divides in order to explain party nationalisation degrees may yield promising results, as many of the ethnic minorities in Central and Eastern European countries are territorially settled. If such ethnic divides become manifest in party politics, then the ethnic structure of a country will explain why the electoral strength of political parties varies across regions. If we take into account the cases with Romania and Hungary, the best example could be inter-war Transylvania- the large ethnic Hungarian and German minorities constituted approximately 40% of the population, and all of the minorities were either Catholic or Protestant. If we add to this figure the number of Romanians that belonged to the Greek Catholic Church, then approximately 70% of Transylvanias population belonged to a Western Christian denomination prior to the communist takeover. These figures are important because, as Kitschelt argues, these pre-communist legacies influenced the communist reform process. In the case of Transylvania and Galicia these cultural and religious differences had a marked impact on the regions during the communist period. Nevertheless, Transylvania has traditionally been perceived, even during the communist period, as ethnically, culturally and politically different from the rest of the country. Therefore in order to assimilate Transylvania, nationali sm was an important ideological component of Romanian communism, particularly under Ceausescu. He promoted a form of national populism characterised by pseudo-egalitarianism and the non-recognition of any kind of diversity'(Whitefield 2002). However, the existence of diversity across post-communist states in the content of political competition is not evidence for diversity in cleavage structures. Support for political parties may vary as a result of many factors, discussed below, that are not connected to cleavages. And even if partisanship appears to be rooted in ideological and social differentiation, this may not result from social and ideological divisions in the population but rather from party strategies(Whitefield 2002). According to the empirical investigation, that Whitefield and Evans had done, there is a relationship among social and ideological differences and partisanship that would be expected if political cleavages were present. Naturally, although economic differentiation was common to all countries (if not always to the same degree), not all social identities and differentiated social experiences were equally present in all states; in particular, the religious and ethnic composition of countries in the region varies markedly. As a consequence, we found that the connection of social division to ideological division also varies; religiosity appears to matter much more to social liberalism in Catholic than in Orthodox states; and issues of ethnic rights are more firmly socially rooted where minorities exist and where the sense of social difference between ethnic groups is more strongly felt. This variation in the nature of social and ideological division is important because it appears to rela te to the nature of divisions that emerge in support for political parties(Whitefield 2002). TABLE 1: Political cleavages in post-Communist Eastern Europe (Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary): social and ideological divisions to partisanship Social bases Ideological bases Romania 1. Age, region (Bucharest), education 2. Ethnicity (Hungarians) economic liberalism, pro/anti-West 3. Region (Transylvania) 1. Social political liberalism, economic liberalism, pro/anti West 2. Ethnic liberalism 3. Pro-West, Jews Bulgaria 1. Ethnicity(Turkish) 2. Age, Class( professionals vs. workers) 3. Religiosity 1. Economic liberalism, pro/anti-West 2. Ethnic liberalism 3. Nationalism, Gypsies Hungary 1. Age 2. Religiosity 3. Class (urban-rural), education/class, settlement size, denomination(Protestant) 1. Economic liberalism, pro/anti-West 2. Social political liberalism, Jews 3. Social political liberalism, nationalism 3. Politics between economy and culture- the case of Hungary In order to continue to analyze the formation of cleavages in Eastern European states, I will try to give example with Hungary. Before that, I would like to point out some of the most important theories of Stein Rokkan linked with the work of S. M. Lipset. As a consequence of the early death of S. Rokkan, his work, in spite its richness and extension, can not be regarded as finished. Here are the basic ideas: 1. Territory as a key concept of politics in a cross pressure between culture and economy, implying: the equal weight given to economic, political-territorial and cultural dimensions; the interaction between geographical spaces and socio-cultural membership spaces, between center formation and boundary building; the conceptual map of Europe with an West-East axis differentiating between economic conditions for state-building and a South-North axis between cultural conditions for nation-building. 2. The identification of four cleavages following the critical junctures of: the national revolution creating the center-periphery and the church-state cleavages; the industrial revolution creating the urban-rural and the labour-capital cleavages. 3. The cyclical movement of cleavages: towards a national-international divide. It is often forgotten that Rokkan does not end his cleavage sequence with the worker-owner conflict of the industrial revolution, but points to an intriguing cyclical movement: breakdown of a supranational order (Roman Empire) establishment of culturally and politically distinctive nation states conflict over national versus international loyalties. (Lipset-Rokkan 47-48) Although the last formulation relates to the communist cleavage within the labour movement (not relevant any more), but in his latest works he points to the centrality of a reformulated version of a center-periphery divide: that between homogenizing supranational standardization and cultural distinctiveness, roots, national identity. ( Rokkan- Urwin, Flora 1983: 434). 4. The different political impacts of a gradual, organic sequence of cleavages ( in most of North Western Europe) versus the cumulation of state and nation-building cleavages together with the rapidity of enfranchisement and sudden modernization. The second alternative especially in the case of the discontinuity of or threats to national independence implies difficulties in transition to mass democracy. (Hungary is directly mentioned by Rokkan in this latter context.) Territorial-cultural conflicts do not just find political expression in secessionist and irredentist movements, however, they feed into the overall cleavage structure and help to condition the development not only of each party organization but even more of the entire system of party oppositions and interests (Lipset-Rokkan 41). 5. The historical long term continuity of collective political identities coalitions and oppositions on the level of alternatives, of parties and of the support market to be mobilized. Parties do not simply present themselves de novo to the citizens at each election; they each have a history and so have the constellations of alternatives they present to the electorate. (Lipset-Rokkan). Emerging cleavages affect, however, former alliances and restructure the party system. Rokkan points also to the existence of a certain lee-way for parties to translate social cleavages. 6. The freezing of party alternatives with the final extension of suffrage (mostly in the twenties), implying the inclusion of the lower classes. In contrast to an expanding support market with a creative phase of parties (Cotta 102) accompanied by a mobilization along cultural and territorial cleavages, the mobilization on the basis of purely economic cleavages comes only afterwards (Rokkan 1980: 118). The stage of mass democracy brings about an ever more closed electoral market with a mobilization controlled by the already existing parties. 7. The special role of social democratic parties on the left side of the labour-capital cleavage. Due to their strength and domesticability, their ability to maintain unity in the face of the man forces making for division and fragmentation (Lipset-Rokkan: 46), social democratic parties and the class cleavage in itself played a stabilizing and homogenizing, cohesive influence in most West European party systems. In countries with a troubled history of nation-building, marked cultural cleavages reduced their potentials. But the very logic of pluralism in democratic capitalism helped their entry into national politics. These parties, having joined the nation contributed to the neutralization of the radicalizing effects of sudden industrialization. (Lipset-Rokkan: 46, 48, 50). 8. The radical rightist anti-system cleavage. The rising networks of new elites, such as the leaders of the new large bureaucracies of industry and government, those who control the various sectors of the communication industry, the heads of mass organizations, the leaders of once weak or low-status groups, and the like constitute the focus of protest of fascist-type parties, which: are nationalistic, they venerate the nation and its culture; are anti-democratic; want to unite their supporters as one single pillar lead by deeply felt convictions about the destiny and the mission of the nation. These xenophobic and racist parties may mobilize segments of the middle and lower classes. As to their emergence and chances of success, contrasts in the continuity and regularity of nation-building certainly played a role (Lipset-Rokkan 23, 24, 25). After we pointed out some of the most important ideas from the Lipset and Rokkan concept, now I will try to form several important assumptions: The evolution of the Hungarian party system confirms the classical sequence of European cleavage formation with the initial and decisive emergence of identity-based territorial and cultural divides followed later by the appearance of economic cleavages. Hungarian party competition seems to reflect and even to anticipate new developments of Western party systems. There are real historical alternatives expressing different conceptions of modernization, of nationhood and of geopolitical location represented by the parties. For Rokkan and Lipset, party alternatives and the party system itself freeze. In Hungary and in some other Eastern European countries, intervals, parties and party structure are unstable and fluid. But the alternatives contained in the cleavage structure are amazingly stable: not the party system, but the cleavage structure is frozen. In the formation process of the parties (1988-89), in the subsequent three elections from 1990 to 1998, the same cleavage sets have mattered and structured party competition, namely: the three cleavage families of Westernization vs. traditionalism, post-communism vs. anti-post-communism and pro-market commodification (winners) vs. welfare statist decommodification (losers). This special freezing of alternatives and cleavages has, however, taken place in the context of a very much open and available electoral market . This deviance from the Rokkan-Lipset freezing pattern is the unavoidable consequence of the long discontinuity of the party system, the lack of traditions of mass democracy and the unstable interest structure of civil society. Due to the strong economic, social and political positions of the post-communist elites and surviving value orientations in the electorate, the definition of the rules of the game as a systemic issue (Offe 1991, Mair 1997) is expressed by the salience of a post-communism anti-post-communism cleavage family. It cannot be deducted from the Rokkan-Lipset scheme, and by its very nature, cannot become a long-enduring historical divide, but can be supposed to fade away. The taming of capitalism, the political regulation of the market with a political mobilization along a commodification decommodification axis is a crucial point of democratic consolidation and legitimacy. Following from the freezing of the Hungarian political cleavage structure in the phase of the dominance of the cultural-territorial and post-communist cleavage families, the increasing importance of this socio-economic divide is coupled with its absorption by or inclusion into the other two cleavage families. The post-1989 evolution of the Hungarian party system has brought about no political mobilization along the line of a classical labour-capital class cleavage. Finally, we should now indicate the main cleavages formed in Hungary, according to Mair: 1. The family of territorial and cultural cleavages Traditionalist forces stress historical continuity, Hungarian nationhood, favour community ove society, are for strong authority, strong church. Their value orientations are more particularist than universalist, they have an inclination to love the rural, even if they are urban Westernizers are outward-looking, for catch-up modernization, they favour individualism, multicultural diversity, they stress secularism and human rights. 2. The family of post-communist cleavages This set of cleavages has several dimensions an ideological dimension of anticommunism which can be based either on particularist national, religious identities or on the universalism of individual human rights and rationality; a political dimension expressed in the relationship to the Socialist Party looked upon as the successor party; a power dimension of competing elites and of the re-definition of the rules of the game outside and inside politics; a structural dimension reflecting the symbiotic dualism of the present society with a secto rooted in late communism and a sector of emerging capitalism iv; an emotional and biographical dimension with a population split into two halves: one half who feel they lived better in the last years of real socialism and another half thinking differently. 3. The family of socio-economic cleavages With economic transformation progressing and with an overwhelmingly materialist electorate this set of cleavages has become central in the society, but the early freezing of the party system structured along the above mentioned two cleavage sets is still complicating the clear translation of this divide into programmatic and public policy alternatives. 4. Old Theories vs. New Parties: Romania Post-communist party system Surprisingly, post-communist cleavages in Romania have been the spotlight of relatively little attention. Indeed, as Crowther writes: If skeptics are correct, Romania should stand out as a strong case for the inapplicability of social cleavage analyses. Because of the peculiarities of its pre-communist and communist past, Romania is often taken as an archetypical example of the post-communist countries dearth of civil society. Or, in other words, it is almost impossible to test the theory of Stein Rokkan or S.M. Lipset, without necessary sharing Crowthers point of view on the inapplicability of social cleavage analyses. Most recent works on the concept à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾post-communist cleavages commence with a few comments on Lipsets and Rokkans cleavage theory applied to the case of Central Europe. One of the most respectful professors from Bulgaria- Georgi Karasimeonov indicates that Lipsets and Rokkans cleavage theory was formulated on the special conditions and terms of a particular European western model. Karasimeonov contributions to the debate can be interpreted in the tradition of the analysis of the electoral behavior and party formation in transnational societies revealing at least four types of cleavages: residual (historical), transitional, actual and potential8. De Waele, seeks to clarify and categorize the relationship between the original theory of cleavages as it is applied to Western model and the post-communist experience undertaking his project with the view of three cleavages: 1. The first set of objective considerations influencing the emergence of the post-communist party system concerns the economic cleavage. De Waelle argues that the socio-economic cleavage (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾maximalist vs. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾minimalist) comes from the communist regimes successful orientation towards destruction of the capitalist economy. De Waele himself flags up this problem with his own definition: the term à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾maximalist is used to describe the adherents of a fast transition. In theory, the claim that the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾minimalist perspective is likely to have a socioeconomic basis has been highly dependent upon overall record of mixed progress with uneven and slow reform implementation. On the contrary, the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾maximalists represented the turning point for the post-communism. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾The maximalists launched new reform programs, a macroeconomic plan stabilization and structural reforms, an ambitious shock therapy for the Romanian economy, including the liberalization of prices and the foreign exchange market as well as the accelerati on of the privatization. 2. The second cleavage, the so-called à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾authoritariandemocratic divide, refers to the inability of a significant part of the society to renounce in discursive terms the communist legacy (although, in Romania this did not necessarily translate into a rejection of all kind of authoritarian attitudes). In many recent studies on authoritarian attitudes in postcommunist Romania, researchers have pointed the electoral success of Vadim Tudor in 2000, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾as a distinctly unpleasant surprise for many in the West. The case in point was the increase of supporters of a latent antipluralist attitude towards the European values arena. 3. The third cleavage line is between the communists and the anticommunists. The à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾old attitude, a so-called à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾pre-communist behavior was usually reactivated after the emergence of the new parties. Given the discontinuity of the transition, à gh concludes that the confrontation between the two groups led to the formation of a multi-party and the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾first generation parties. He also witnessed the fact that the new parties were formed à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾as second generation parties, and the third category, the so-called small à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾third generation appeared much later. In a similar way, Gill argues that it is difficult to establish the real significance of the cleavage between the two types. He also indicates there have been at least three referential ways to see post-communism: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾post-communism as a system, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾post-communism as a condition, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾post-communism as a situation. After this analysis of the main three cleavages that the Romanian post-communist system has experienced, it is almost impossible at this point to raise the discussion of a consolidated democracy. With politics in Romania still changing, the outlines of the three families of cleavages advanced in this article constitute a significant obstacle towards consolidation. 5. Conclusion Finally I would like to go back to some of the main points I have presented: The evolution of the Eastern European party system confirms the classical sequence of European cleavage formation with the initial and decisive emergence of identity-based territorial and cultural divides, with their dominance over socio-economic divides followed later by the appearance of economic cleavages. The salient manifestation of the cumulation of cultural and territorial cleavages in the part system corresponds clearly with the cyclical movement in the framework of the Rokkanian scheme demonstrating how globally the centrality of a national-supranational divide. The example with Hungarian party competition seems to reflect and even to anticipate new developments of Western party systems. There are real historical alternatives expressing different conceptions of modernisation, of nationhood and of geopolitical location represented by the parties. These alternatives are olde than the most of the Eastern European electorate, but they deviate from the mainstream in Western Europe. In the formation process of the parties (1988-89), in the subsequent three elections from 1990 to 1998, the same cleavage sets have mattered and structured party competition, namely: the three cleavage families of Westernization vs. traditionalism, post-communism vs. anti-post-communism and marketization, commodification (winners) vs. welfare statism. This special freezing of alternatives and cleavages has, however, taken place in the context of a very much open and available electoral market . This deviance from the Rokkan-Lipset freezing pattern is the unavoidable consequence of the long discontinuity of the party system, the lack of traditions of mass democracy and the unstable interest structure of civil society. The post-1989 evolution of the Hungarian and Romania party system has brought about no political mobilisation along the line of a classical labour-capital class cleavage. Instead, I have observed the following attempts for bringing the welfare statist decommodification cleavage in: coupling it with the post-communist cleavage, coupling it with the defence of national identity, coupling it with the religious cleavage, coupling (its radical variant) with an aggressive and racist social nationalism. After all, I still believe that formation of cleavages in East Europe, according to the thesis of Lipset and Rokkan, is almost impossible to apply to these countries. However, the cases which I in detail discussed (Hungary and Romania), are the best example for the existing of cleavages in Eastern European states. Therefore, indicates that even the model of Lipset-Rokkan was more applicable for Western European countries, especially because of different economical and political development, the existing of cleavages in East Europe was possible even before 1989, and the model is still useful nowadays.

Nursing Final

Its a beta blocker. – Chapter 18- Peripheral Vascular Disorders -Hypertension- BP 140/90. -Hypertensive Crisis- 180/120 -DASH diet- 2,000 calories. 7-8 grains, fewer than 2 servings of protein Review pages 430- 438 Chapter 29- Urinary System – Urinary Tract Infection- #1 Nonsocial infection Most common location is the bladder (cystitis) Most common upper OUT is kidney and renal pelvis (polytheists) Most common bacteria to cause OUT is e-coli Difference between Cystitis and PolytheistsCystitis- Disarray, urgency, nocturne, Papyri, Hematite Polytheists- Same as above plus flank pain, N-V-D, fever, malaise- Urinary Calculi. Stones made from Ca. Dull, aching to severe flank pain. Nausea, vomiting. Gross hematite. – Lithography- crushing stones through sound waves – Acute Renal Failure. -Rapid onset. Reversible.Most common cause is sashimi (poor perfusion to the kidney) Most common symptom is Algeria (urine output less than 400 muddy) High BUN and creating leve ls Page 2 Occurs in 3 stages: initiation (up to days), maintenance phase (up to 2 weeks) and this is here all the problems occur, and the recovery phase (up to 1 – Globetrotting's Leading cause of kidney disease and failure Caused by strep (a beta-hemolytic strep) Surrounded by bowman's capsule Sex: hematite, proteins, hypoglycemia, azotes (increase Nitrogen) Lasts 10-14 days Nephritis- nephritis is any degenerative disease of the renal tubules.Nephritis can be caused by kidney disease, or it may be secondary to another disorder. It should not be confused with nephritis, where inflammation is implied. – Nephritic Syndrome Same as above but there is a significant loss of protein lost in urine Found in lupus ND those with kidney disorders Sex: proteins, low albumin, high lipids, and severe edema in face and periodontal area. Blood clots are common. – Urine Dipstick PH 6-6. 5 specific gravity 1. 010-1. 025 Everything else is negative in a healthy patient Potassium Normal 3. -5. 2 – Sodium Normal 135-145 Drugs that lower sodium levels are diuretics, (pep-/ Noreen), decongestants and antithetic medications IV solutions that increase sodium are Nasal Chapter 31- Male Reproductive – Tetrahedral resection of the prostate (TURN) – is a surgical procedure that removes portions of the prostate gland through the TURN requires no external incision. Pen's. A Inserted through the penis and the wire loop is guided by the surgeon so it can remove carried by fluid the obstructing tissue one piece at a time.The pieces of tissue are into the bladder and flushed out at the end of the procedure. TURN is generally done to relieve symptoms due to prostate enlargement, often due to quite enlarged Problems with dribbling. BP. BP is a condition in which the prostate gland may become and cause problems with urination. Symptoms may include getting a urine stream started . Nocturne, urgency, Monitor tort hemorrhage tort the TLS 2 Chapter 32- Female Reproductive Meteorological Bleeding between periods Sign of cervical or uterine cancer Dilation and Curettage (D ;C) Page 3 – Cervical canal is scraped 48 hours.Monitor for circulation. Avoid pillow under legs. Avoid tampons for 2 weeks. – Vaginas Fungal (candidates) Protozoan (trice. ) bacteria (grandparent) Chapter 34/35- Endocrine System Biofeedback Mechanisms (3 below) 1) glucose maintenance- interplay between insulin and clangor, pancreatic hormones that release glucose and store glucose, respectively 2) body temperature maintenance -hypothalamus, nerves, skin, sweat glands, earth(beats faster if warm), kidneys -if your temp. Increases due to exercise/warm weather/illness: sweating occurs to produce evaporation which leads to cooling -if your temp. Decreases due to cold weather/being scared/illness: â€Å"goose bumps† (obliteration) occurs, which are thought to be derived from a response that enable the hair to stand on end causing more insulation and hea t 3) fluid maintenance- -kidneys regulate how much fluid is excreted. If you are dehydrated they will produce less urine. If you drink a lot of fluid quickly, then more urine will be excreted – Thyroid sits on either side of tracheaIsthmus connects two lobes Needs iodine to secrete to (thyroxin) and to (trinitrotoluene) that increases metabolism Also secretes calculation that decreases excess calcium levels in the blood – Hyperthyroidism Too much thyroid hormone AS: Increased appetite, yet loses weight. If left untreated, will cause cardiac dysphasia and heart failure Develops into 2 disorders: Graves disease and thyroid crisis Graves disease (goiters ; expostulates- protruding eyes) Expostulates- protruding eyes Thyroid storm- High fever (;102), tachycardia, hypertension, restlessness, seizures, delirium- Tracheotomy-Will be on lifelong replacement hormones Thyroid state (balanced hormonal state before surgery) Nursing precautions: hemorrhage, respiratory distress, la ryngeal nerve damage, tenant, thyroid storm Maxed- form of hypothyroidism Brought on by exposure to cold, infix, temp, trauma, narcotics ; tranquilizer More frequent in women AS: seizures, lethargy to coma, hypothermia. Respiratory and cardiovascular systems shut down. TX: airway, Cardiac function, increasing Temperature and HTH levels by getting labyrinthine by IV. Page 4 – Cushing Syndrome Adrenal cortex produces too much cortical (hormone) or ACTAAS: fat deposits in abdomen, clavicle, buffalo hump, round moon face, hirsute (excessive facial hair) DXL: Increase cortical level and elevate 24 hour urine test with 17- sisterhoods and 17- horticulturalists. Low potassium, Sodium and glucose levels are also higher. Meds: lessoned and acetated are commonly used. Addison Disease Adrenal insufficiency AS: decrease glorifications, mineralogist's, and androgen's TX: IV fluids, glucose, An, sociolinguistics, warm and quiet environment DXL: Decreased levels of cortical, decreased 24 ho ur urine test with 17- sisterhoods, Potassium is increased, glucose and sodium are decreased.Phosphorescently benign tumor of adrenal medulla Produces excessive amounts of epinephrine and morphogenesis Stimulates the sympathetic nervous system AS: BP 200-300/150 +, pounding HA, profuse sweating, tachycardia, flushing, DXL: increased catecholamine levels in the blood or urine, CT scan. Tracheotomy Nursing care: stabilize BP – Tracheotomy Removal of adrenal gland High risk of Addison crisis or adrenal crisis. – Addison Crisis hypertension, rapid weak pulse, extreme weakness, confusion, circulating collapse and shock.Dangerously low K+ levels. – Diabetes Insipid Results from lack of DAD hormone Two types: energetic (damage to pituitary) and nephritic (Kidneys) Risk for hyperthermia Sex: Polynesia, popularly (5-15 ml. ‘day) urine specific gravity of less than 1. 005, mucous pale urine, weakens, dehydration, tachycardia, poor skin author, dry membranes Nursing Care: managing fluid and electrolytes, replacing DAD. Monitor daily weight. Meds: Visionaries (monitor for h/a and abdominal cramps).Ethicize diuretics sodium Chapter 36- Diabetes – Normal blood glucose is 70-100. Diagnosing Diabetes plasma glucose level (>200) oral glucose tolerance test (2 hour test, >200) sting blood glucose (8 hour test, > 126) Peripheral Vascular Disease Greater in Type 2 Atherosclerosis of lower legs Page 5 Leads to gangrene. (Most common cause of amputations) AS: hair loss, atrophic skin, cool feet, red- white legs, thick toenails, pain with walking a pulses. ND at rest (usually at night), diminished or absent peripheral – Type 1 Diabetes Destruction of beta cells leads to state of absolute insulin deficiency Usually occurs in childhood Prone to developing acidosis's Insulin dependent Sex: Popularly, Polynesia, polyphonic, weight loss, fatigue, malaise, blurred vision – Type 2 Diabetes Sufficient insulin to prevent acidosis's, but to lowe r blood glucose Usually occurs after 30 Most clients are obese Insulin requiring but not dependent Sex: Popularly, Polynesia, obesity, recurrent infix, fatigue, blurred vision, parenthesis (numbness and tingling around mouth and hands and feet. – DAD 1800 clone Diet Diabetic Acidosis Occurs in Type 1 diabetes Sex: hyperglycemia, dehydration, coma, BBS > 250, stentorian. Metabolic Acidosis's= fruity, alcohol breath Common in those who are undiagnosed. TX: fluids, insulin, correction of electrolytes. Unconsciousness patients need 0. 9% normal saline to replace sodium. Start with 0. 9, then 0. 45%. Dextrose is added to prevent hypoglycemia. Exercise Reduces blood glucose by increase glucose use by the muscles. Eat snack before exercising. Avoid exercising if fasting is ; 250. -Only regular insulin may be given b y the IV route.HAS (Hyperbolas Hyperglycemia State) Occurs in Type 2 Characterized by severely high glucose ( or ;), extreme dehydration, and alter LOC, grand mall seizu res. -Differences between DAKAR and HAS Type 1 Lethargy H HAS Type 2 Coma Samuels breaths Rapid, shallow breathing Glucose ;250 Glucose ; 600 *Samuels breathing – rapid, deep respiration to prevent decrease in PH. Smoggy Effect Morning rise in glucose after a nighttime hypoglycemia. Sex: tenors, night sweats, and restlessness. TX: Eat bedtime snack Dawn phenomenon Rise in glucose between 4 am and 8 am.TX: increase insulin dose or changing injection time from dinnertime to bedtime Page Hyperglycemia Sex: Increased thirst and frequency Diet: low carbohydrates and sugar, sufficient hydration, and frequent small meals. – Hypoglycemia Sex: carry an emergency snack high in carbohydrates to help raise low blood sugar. People who have experienced hypoglycemia in the past should eat meals at regular intervals, avoid excessive alcohol and never drink alcohol on an empty stomach. Chapter 37- Nervous system – Cardiovascular Accident- Brain attack or stroke Thrombosis C.V.- Caused by atherosclerosis of arteries.Happens during or after sleep. Embolism C.V.- caused by problems with the heart Hemorrhagic C.V.- caused by hypertension Right Side vs. Left side Effects left side Effects right side Visual Unaware Impulsive Heat stroke Speech (Left-Language) Away re Slow, cautious heat cramps, heat syncope (fainting), and heat exhaustion . Nausea, seizures, confusion, disorientation, and sometimes loss of consciousness. Remove any extra clothes. – Frost bite Don't put direct heat on it. Wrap in blankets or move to a warmer environment.Chapter 38- Interracial Disorders – Closed head injuries Coup-contractor- Jerking forward-jerking back – Concussion brain injury resulting trot violent snaking or impact – Contusion bleeding into soft tissue resulting from blunt force Epidural Hematite severe blow to brain causing arterial bleeding between skull and durra mater. – Suburbia Hematite injury between durra mater and subtractions laye r – Antibacterial Hematite Bleeding into brain caused by gunshot wound or depressed skull fracture- Simple arterial seizure- Jerking of finger, hand, foot, leg and face.Called Jackson March. – Sex: flashing lights, tingling sensations, or hallucinations. – Complex Partial Seizures Sex: lip smacking, aimless walking, picking up clothing – Absence seizures- In children. Blank stare. Lasts 5-10 seconds. May be unaware. – Tonic-clinic seizures- Adults and children. From trauma. Stages: aura, tonic phase, clinic phase, postnatal phase Up to 30 miss Page 7 Chapter 39- Neurological and Spinal Multiple Sclerosis degenerative disease that damages myelin sheath surrounding axons. Marked by periods of exacerbation and remissionEffects Women between 20-50 Myelin sheath is the white matter in the CONS Put is prone to IT'S, pressure ulcers, Joint conjunctures, pneumonia, depression DXL: SF (cerebration's fluid analysis). Look for Gig. , MR. and CT scan. – Parkinson Disease Results from a lack of dopamine 3 cardiac signs: tremor, rigidity, braininess. Pill-rolling. Leopard- Used to treat shaking, stiffness, and slow movement Interscholastic- Med for Parkinson Sex: dry mouth, orthodontic hypertension, constipation, urinary hesitation, pupil dilation, blurred vision, dry eyes, photosensitive, increased heart rate.Anesthesia Gravies Marked by periods of exacerbation and remission Sex: eyelid photos (drooping eye), diploma (double vision), slurred speech, nasal voice, difficulty chewing or swallowing Face appears to have a snarl or grimace Risk for aspiration and respiratory insufficiency – Choleric Crisis caused by taking meds too early. Sex: Severe muscle weakness, NV, increased salivation, sweating, brickyard. – Anesthetic crisis Caused by taking meds late Sex: muscle weakness, inability to speak/swallow, respiratory distress, anxiety – Terminal Neuralgia Causes pain along both sides of face.Sex: periodic, severe pain in cheeks, forehead, lips. Triggered by wind, chewing, shaving. Rhizome- surgical severing of a nerve root to control pain. – Autonomic Dyslexia Effects TO and above. Stimulated by full bladder or fecal impaction. TX: Elevate HOB 45 degrees. Check for kinks in catheter. – CLC-CA injury puts a person on a ventilator. MONOCOTYLEDON a protrusion of impinges and spinal cord through a defect in the spinal column Chapter 40- Eye Disorders – Cataracts Red-reflex (reddish-orange glow in pupil when light hits it) disappears. Intraocular lens is implanted to focus light and restore vision.Snell Chart Eye chart. Madrigals- med that causes dilation of pupil Page 8 Chapter 43- Musculoskeletal Trauma Mast Suit Used for carcinogenic & hypoglycemic shock in abdominal, pelvic and lower extremity Internal (Proportional) trauma – Know: Diabetes, insulin – peak time & preparing, when to administer, Insulin Comparison Chart: Insulin Type Onset Peaks at Ends Workin g in Low Occurs at Humanly- (Rapid) 15-20 miss 30-90 miss 3-4 hours 2-4 her Novel- (Rapid) 15-20 miss 40-50 miss 3-4 hours 2-4 her Regular (short)30-60 miss 80-120 miss 4-6 hours 3-7 her NAP (intermediate 2-4 hours 6-10 hours 14-16 hours 6-12 herLandaus (Long) 2-3 hours almost no peak 18-26 hours 4-24 her Oxalate: This medication is used to treat a high level of potassium in your blood. Too much potassium in your blood can sometimes cause heart rhythm problems. Sodium polystyrene sultanate works by helping your body get rid of extra potassium. Corticosteroids- from the adrenal cortex . Used to treat purists (itching) and psoriasis, bone cancer, chronic interpolator diseases such as Arthur s Sociolinguistics (creditors) raises blood glucose levels. Mineralogical (lodestone) maintains normal salt and water balance through kidneys.

Steroids and Their Affects on the Human Body Essay

Steroids and Their Affects On The Human Body Drugs have been used in sports almost as long as sports themselves have been around. The ancient Incas discovered that the ashes from burned leaves of the Coca tree gave the people great stores of energy, and made sleep unnecessary for hours or even days, it was later discovered to be the stimulant cocaine. They would take it before long hunts, battles, and even found it useful in ancient sport competitions. It wasnt until 1886 that the first drug-related death in sports occurred. A bicyclist took a mixture of cocaine and heroine, called the speedball, and died from it. Little were the doctors aware the epidemic that would follow in the next century. Anabolic steroids, developed in†¦show more content†¦The steroids taken by athletes contain testosterone or chemicals that act in similar way to testosterone. Testosterone is found in men and women, but in women it is present in much smaller amounts, mainly because it is produced in the testicles in men. More than one hundred and twenty steroids are based on the hormone testosterone. There are many brand names, such as Durabolin, Winstrol, Pregnyl, and Anavar. Basically anabolic steroids control the bodily functions that are normally under control of the bodies natural testosterone. As well as turning women into men and men into manly men it has a stimulative effect on skeletal muscle mass, some visceral organs, the hemoglobin concentration, and the red blood cell number and mass. Of course, most people take anabolic steroids illegally to stimulate growth in muscle cells. Once a person is born, he/she will not grow anymore muscle cells throughout their life. 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Analysis of good leaders in the modern market - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1633 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Marketing Essay Type Argumentative essay Did you like this example? The business environment in the 21st Century has become highly chaotic, multifaceted, challenging and also filled with fierce opportunities and threats; this has lead to a rough but paradoxical career change signal as stated by Ireland and Hitt (1999). The traditional role of an employee working hard and being loyal has now been replaced with a constant identity alteration coupled with a degree of continuous education and innovation. Hall (1996) argued that the variable career has become dominant as compared to the organisational career in the past This essay will highlight my career plans and answer questions such as the kind of leaders required in the 21st Century and the requisite qualities required to be successful in this fast paced business environment. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Analysis of good leaders in the modern market" essay for you Create order The essay is structured as follows: section one will focus on my ideal organisation, section two will highlight my key learning needs and section three will conclude the essay. My Career Plans I would like to work as a top executive in a multinational Bank located in a developing economy for the next eight years; a multinational company is an enterprise being controlled by a foreigner, an example of such a company I would like to work with is Barclays Bank which is the worlds largest Bank established in 1690. In the long term (after ten years from now) I would start my own financial company by partnership, nature it and grow it into an international company. Leaders required for the 21st century Organisations In order to be successful in the 21st Century in terms of career, a person must of necessity be a manager as well as a leader simultaneously. Management is about coping with complexity while leadership is about coping with change. The leader must have a critical creative thinking ability and an analytical problem solving capability. Companies must learn to find an unmet need in the market and determine the viability of business concepts by evaluating major risks through market research and analysis. A leader must be strategically flexible as researched by Hitt and DeMarie (1999) in creating diverse ideas and sharing company vision and values with all related parties as well as have a mastery of both the external and internal environment of the company; this will help to spot global profit opportunities speedily before competitors, evaluate them and select theÂÂ  best portfolio of profitable projects and initiatives for the organisational success A leader should recognize , define and solve problems that arise with both long and short term decisions. A good leader must also be a forward thinker, must be able to anticipate problems that are likely to arise after a particular action has been taken as well as solutions to such problems (alternate and backup solutions). The manager must be able to plan and identify the strengths and weaknesses of team members and focus on the strengths (Drucker, 2009 pp 17) while helping employees, this will motivate staff to contribute their best towards company objectives. What are the qualities needed to be successful in the 21st century Organisations A company can perform better by predicting and taking opportunities and challenges in the social, economic, technological and political world; it must develop a 360-degree personality to be able to solve complex problems in the business environment. (London Beatty, 2006) The future of a company is driven by external factors which are usually complex and need a lot of understanding, focus and planning, a company that understands and makes provision to take advantage of both internal and external opportunities is likely to succeed, grow and excel. An organisation must make good use of scarce resources in order to generate quality products so as to exhibit effectiveness and efficiency as a result of cost reduction leading to a competitive edge over others in the industry. Also, a company must create a culture of multi skilled teamwork and motivation which is a form of employee empowerment; making employees to think, behave, take action, control work and make decisions in autono mous ways (Flanagan Finger, 2009), this will automatically create an environment in which people are empowered, productive, and happy; an atmosphere where employees express love in contributing to organisational success. In addition, Companies should have excellent systems and relationships with customers, employees, suppliers and competitors, governments and the society at large. My Ideal Organisation In the future, I would like to first work with an organisation with a clear vision and purpose as stated by the CEO of British Petroleum John Browne in an interview with HBR in 1997 A business has to have a clear purpose, our purpose is who we are and what makes us distinctive this company must be a flat organisation where employees are valued, treated as assets, and share ideas freely with superiors, an organisation with a tradition of teamwork in addition to a safe secure working environment. The organisation must be flexible to change and constantly encourage and acknowledge innovation. Example of companies that had to go through such change to grow is General Electric, Toyota, IBM and Nike to mention but a few (Harvard Business Review 2009) . The organisation must have a culture of involving front line managers in decision making and also value relationships with customers, employees, suppliers, competitors etc. The company must be a strategic leader in the industry, the heart of strategy must be purpose as indicated by Harvard Business Review (2009) Strategic leadership is the ability to anticipate, envisage, uphold flexibility, think strategically and working with people to instigate changes that will lead to a viable organisational future. It should have a working environment that is difficult for competitors to understand or imitate. The result will be wealth creation for employees, customers, suppliers, shareholders, government and the society at large (Rowe, 2001). My ideal Company is also the one that go beyond the idea of shareholder profit maximization and takes proactive steps towards managing stakeholder relationship. Post el al. (2002) contended that the ability of a firm to understand and manage the entire set of stakeholder relationships is the ultimate key for sustained wealth creation over time and in most cases the long term survival of the firm. Additionally, an organisation with extensive and solid corporate social responsibili ties will be my ideal place to work. The organisation should be able to give something back to the local community where it operates and also take steps to minimize the impact of it operational activities on the environment. For example, a research by Net Impact (2008) found that more than half of the 2,100 MBA students surveyed indicate they would accept lower pay in order to work for a socially responsible company. Thus it is fair to argue that organisations that address ethical, social, and environmental responsibilities would be a better place to work. Finally, my ideal organisation should exhibit high ethical standards, financial strength, attractive locations, progressive working environment, has Flexible working conditions, clear advancement path, competitive compensation and international career opportunities. What are my key learning needs? In order to achieve my career dreams, I should learn how to set goals, articulate my vision, choose the best people as employees, assign proper roles and responsibilities, understand working hours and contracts, identify training opportunities, create a safe working environment, Manage change, time and stress, Manage individual and company decisions and delegate responsibilities to qualified personnel. I must therefore acquire self management skills, project management skills, be technically inclined, be self confident, develop the ability to understand systems and processes; as well as being cross functional, flexible, persistent ,goal-oriented, reliable, trust worthy, having a level of international experience and update and develop my computer technology skills (Kirkpatrick and Locke, I991, Snow and Miles, 1996). Furthermore, I should develop conceptual, interpersonal and people skills which will help me understand the different personalities in teamwork and team building. I should be able to influence how people think and act and learn how to drive teammates towards high organisational achievements (Stone et al, 2004). I must learn to focus on behaviours and not personalities; study to take feedback as information rather than criticisms. Moreover I should be able to bring conflicts to the surface and resolve them among employees. Resolving conflicts among team members need certain leadership skills that will be acquired through continuous learning and reflection. I must develop good verbal and written communication skills; l must communicate in a clear concise manner so as to get results expected from other team mates. I should create a friendly atmosphere where people communicate quickly and freely. I therefore need to improve behaviours such as listening, creating, initiating, prioritising ,planning, organising, seeking information , suggesting procedures, clarifying ideas, elaborating, summarizing, compromising, recognizing the contributions o f others, involving employees in decision making and the ability to learn continuously and quickly. Conclusion In conclusion, an MBA is indispensible when we talk about successful management and leadership as it leads to personal development which aims at improving self awareness and knowledge, building talents and potential, teaching flexibility, creativity, self motivation, personal effectiveness, effective teamwork, interpersonal skills, developing analytical and people skills. The challenge to me is to learn, acquire, practicalise and build my strengths, while allowing others to complement my weaknesses in my career. I must also be able to identify challenges in the global business environment quickly and be able to take opportunities so as to make my dream a reality. Management in the 21st century will be focussed on managers with leadership qualities such as capability to learn continuously, ability to create team base divisions, capacity to drive human resource processes, skill of creating incentives to enhance growth, holistic budgeting and proactive control skills. Companies wil l only be sustained and developed by managers who are also leaders. As the saying goes Such a dream, act a dream, and make it real. I am determined to make my dream a reality and hence the first step of an MBA at the University of Southampton.